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The authors build on the Bennett experiments in the sense that they too used mass spectrometry and they too looked at all known products of the reaction. To overcome the limitation of the previous study, however, they also implemented another experimental technique that Yamamoto et al. Yamamoto et al. The energy-dependence of the process yields some interesting information about the primary interaction of radiation with H 2 O molecules. In order to understand why product yields at different electron energies E 0 are useful in understanding the underlying chemistry, a very brief explanation of some basic concepts of electron-driven chemistry might be needed.

The reason why UV light, electron beams and X-rays should produce the same chemical products from condensed H 2 O:CO mixtures might at first be surprising. The modes of primary interaction between the different types of radiation and a molecule are quite different. Electrons on the other hand can have energies from near 0 eV all the way up to GeV, as seen in cosmic rays.

Therefore, they can trigger a huge range of different processes. This is why the study of condensed phase astrochemistry is so often conducted using electron beams.

They can trigger a huge variety of processes and at the same time are much easier to operate, tune and quantify than sources for X-Ray or extreme UV radiation. But why do UV, electrons and X-ray cause the same types of chemical reactions to occur? This has to do with the processes that happen after the primary interaction. Any type of radiation that has an energy above the ionization threshold of a substance can knock an electron out of a molecule 2.

The electron that leaves the molecule, however, does not simply disappear. It can interact with surrounding molecules, of which there are many in the condensed phase, just as an electron from an electron beam would.

This makes them responsible for the majority of chemical processes that are observed in energetic processing of ices. The electron can excite the molecule, transferring some of its energy.

This can happen when E 0 is above the excitation threshold of the molecule, from which energy the cross section steadily rises:. The electron can knock an additional electron from the molecule, if its E 0 is above the ionization threshold of the molecule, again with rising cross section for higher energies.

In the case of neutral excitation, the dissociation of the molecule is called neutral dissociation ND and it typically yields two radicals. The case of the molecule losing an electron is called electron impact ionization EI , in case the energy of the impinging electron is high enough, this will lead to dissociative ionization DI ,.

These radicals are responsible for the formation of new bonds and thus chemical change. Since the energy dependence of these processes is different resonant vs.

The Schmidt et al. It was observed that all three products had a common energy dependence with a steady rise in product yield starting from around 6—7 eV.

This clearly was an ND process, as it was not resonant and started at an energy far below the ionization threshold of either H 2 O or CO. This indicated that there must be one common or at least similar reaction pathway leading to either of the three products. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, tasteless gas that is slightly lighter than air. It is toxic to humans and animals when encountered in higher concentrations, despite the fact that it is produced in the metabolism and is thought to have some biological functions.

Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. The distance between the carbon and oxygen atom is CO has three resonance structures, but the structure with the triple bond is the best approximation of the real distribution of electron density in the molecule. CO is naturally produced by the human body as a signaling molecule. Abnormalities in its metabolism have been linked to a variety of diseases, including hypertension and heart failure.

CO is present in small amounts in the atmosphere, mostly as a result of the burning of fossil fuels and fires. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide CO 2. Carbon dioxide, or CO 2 , is a naturally occurring linear compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a carbon atom. The compound is centrosymmetric and so has no net dipole. CO 2 is colorless; at high concentrations it has a sharp, acidic odor, but at lower concentrations it is odorless.

At standard temperature and pressure, its density is 1. It has no liquid state at pressures below kPa; at 1 atm, the gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below The annual increase has been reported to be 1. On the other hand, the atmospheric CO 2 concentration was about ppm by volume in the s before the industrial revolution, and it was ppm in If you want more details about Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the U.

Engineers, scientists, politician and the general public believe that increase level of CO 2 will cause the world to warm up, because some scientists have demonstrated their findings and the experts agreed. Lengthy discussion is required to present scientific evidences for the so called green house effect of CO 2 , and hopefully some day you will be able to judge the argument yourself.

I have not found simple and convincing evidence to present at this time. However, experts have suggested a correlation with the increase level of CO 2 and the average temperature of the globe.

Well, what can be done at a personal level, as a community, and as a country requires the determination of individuals. This is a challenge for us all especially engineers, because they are at the forefront of many industries. We face many front for a solution to the problem of carbon dioxide emission.

The standard enthalpy of formation of NO is Calculate the Gibb's energy for the reaction. What is the equilibrium constant for the reaction as written and what is the implication of the result in the discussion of NO in air? Discussion Questions What are the molecular structures of carbon oxides? What atomic orbitals are involved in the molecular orbitals of carbon oxides? Why do CO molecules form strong bonds with metal atoms in carbonyls?

What are some of the applications of carbon oxides? How has carbon dioxide level changed? The following table is useful for the different definitions of reduction. As oxidation is the opposite of reduction you only need to learn half the facts! One definition of a reducing agent I particularly like is to think of it as being an oxygen grabber. It is important to remember that the reducing agent itself gets oxidised. A quick and simple laboratory reduction can be achieved by heating a mixture of black copper II oxide with carbon powder in a test tube.

After several minutes of heating the reddish coloured copper can be seen on the side of the test tube. Essentially carbon acts as a reducing agent as well as the carbon monoxide that is inevitably formed by its heating in air. The following reactions are all occurring in this simple experiment.

Carbon monoxide does not show acidic or basic properties. Carbon monoxide has a remarkable affinity for transition metals located between Groups 2 and 3 of the Periodic Table. The first examples of metal carbonyls was back in , when tetracarbonyl nickel 0 Ni CO 4 and pentacarbonyl iron 0 Fe CO 5 were prepared and characterised. The former complex forms part of the Mond Process for the purification of Nickel.

Ni CO 4 is distilled to give pure nickel. Carbon monoxide is so reactive with nickel that within a couple of minutes it will have etched the surface. Ni CO 4 is highly toxic with a musty smell. As well as being flammable this tetrahedral complex decomposes easily into its constituents. Carbon monoxide is acting as a ligand towards the transition metal through the lone pair on the carbon atom.